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Period V. London, Rivington. Paris, Colin et C. A -Barlow. Modena, tip. Na- mias e C. Serie XIV 79 — Geschichts- wissensch. XI 18 — In Germania, Illustr. Kunde der deutsch. Vorzeit I, i. Adams George Burton, Civilization during the middle ages, especially in relation to modern civilization. Stuttgart, Jos. LC Serie XIV — Z. A, Ferrai. Kleinpaill Rudolf, Das Mittelalter. Leipzig, H. London, Putnam. X, S. Aarau , H. Hamburg, Verlags- anstalt. Serie IX Heft Beurlier E. Bruno too had neither the experimental bias nor the Christian mysticism of the Cusan.

Yet the cosmic view that evoked those paeans of Bruno was, in essence, the cosmic view of Cusanus. Bruno uses the very phrases of Cusanus and we must believe that he drew from him the first apprehension of his impassioned vision of infinity. The vision is 20 Cf. II, Capp. Ascendit ad intcllcctum sensibile ut intelligentia ad ipsum descendat. De coniecturis, Lib. II, Cap. Ernst Cassirer, Individuum und Kosmos. Leipzig, , pp.

II with figure. Fiorentino, ll panteismo di Giordano Bruno Naples, , Chap. Gorcc, Uessor de la pensSe au moyen age Paris, Just as we regard ourselves as at the centre of that [universally] equi- distant circle, which is the great horizon and the limit of our own ehcir- cling ethereal region, so doubtless the inhabitants of the moon believe them- selves at the centre [of a great horizon] that embraces this earth, the sun and the other stars, and is the boundary of the radii of their own horizon.

Thus the Earth no more than any other world is at the centre; moreover no points constitute determined celestial poles for our earth, just as she her- self is not a definite and determined pole to any other point of the ether, or of the world space; and the same is true of all other bodies.

From various points of view these may all be regarded either as centres, or as points on the circumference, as poles, or zeniths and so forth. Thus the earth is not in the centre of the universe; it is central only to our own surrounding space.

For there is a single general space, a single vast immensity which we may freely Cf. I, where especially Cap. Or again those wonderful lines in Cap.

II, pp. Liber excitatwnum. De im- menso, Lib. This space we declare to be infinite; since neither reason, convenience, possi- bility, sense-perception nor nature assign to it a limit.

In it arc an infinity of worlds of the same kind as our own. Beyond the imaginary convex circumference of the universe is Time. For there is the measure and nature of motion, since similar moving bodies arc therc.

The Wisdom literature ap- pealed strongly to him; and his invocations of the joy and release brought by his cosmic views are reminiscent of certain Old Testament invoca- tions of Wisdom. In his valedictory address at Wittenberg, Bruno passes easily without any sense of incongruity from Juno and Minerva to his paean of praise of Wisdom with quotations both from the Apocrypha and from the Old Testament.

He transfers to Wisdom his conception of infinite unity: If all things are in common among friends, the most precious is Wisdom.

What can Juno give which thou canst not receive from Wisdom? What may- est thou admire in Venus which thou mayest not also contemplate in Wis- dom? Her beauty is not small, for the lord of all things taketh delight in her. Her I have loved and diligently sought from my youth up. De Vinfinito universo et mondi.

Only such as can be adapted to our mental vision, in the shadow of light; as from the Sun who cannot be reached nor apprehended, who in himself continueth mysteriously and steadfastly in infinite light, yet his per- vasive radiance descendeth to us by the emission of rays and is communi- cated and diffused throughout all things. For as firsdy there is the essence of the sun that can barely be attained by the Mind alone; secondly, the substance of the sun, which occupieth and encompasseth his own orb and liveth where he liveth; and thirdly there is the action or operation of the sun, which comprehendeth all things and is comprehended by all things; in no other way is it possible to consider the threefold sun of the understanding: firstly as the essence of the divine; secondly as the substance of the universe, which is the reflection of the first; thirdly as the light of the perception of those who participate in life and knowledge.

And where is the place of understanding? It is not in me: and the sea saith. It is not with me. That is from the numina, those stars, those fiery gods and watery orbs which course across the firmament and over the space of the ether, as though by their regular flight and speedy circling they make their own orbs. For the invisible things of God arc discovered through those things which arc understood.

This thou hast from Scripture. Wilt thou hear more clearly the voices of the assemblies? The heavens declare the glory of God? The third mode is within our spirit; it is situate at the helm of our soul, controlling the rudder of the ship in the wild sea of this surging century where it is a lighthouse of the spirit in the surrounding darkness.

These three habitations hath divine Wisdom: the first without building, eternal, indeed the very seat of eternity; the second, which is the firstborn, our visible universe; the third, the nextborn, which is the soul of man. This is the one Whole, God, universal Nature, occupying all space, of whom naught but infinity can give the perfect image or semblance.

Its awful majesty alone enabled him to support the eight suffering years that culminated in his death. Proverbs VIII, i. Astronomy in the Sixteenth Century with Special Reference to England Close as was the relationship between the cosmic views of Cusanus and of Bruno, the content of their minds shewed the century that separated them.

Bruno lived in the dawning age of men of science. Though he was a man of science neither by temper nor training, nor by capacity, he gives in his works several figures illustrating simple experiments. We recognize also the boy who noted the changed aspect of Mt. Cicada in the observer of the flight of birds. This attitude is note- worthy as out of tone with his training and the academic atmosphere of his time.

There is no art to define it. It is hardly possible to observe a strictly logical sequence in dealing with the views of Bruno and the influences on him. This survey of contemporary astronomy seems, however, most appropriate here.

De triplici minimo et mensura, Lib. Of what kind must we think any one of their entrails be? What of the round ball of their heart or eye? What of their members? What of their limbs? How small are they? Still more, what of the several first-beginnings whereof their soul and the nature of their mind must needs be formed? Do you not see how fine and tiny they arc? Moreover, whatever things breathe out a pungent savour.

One of the clearest of these passages, in which it is obvious that Bruno has con- firmed his views by simple experiment, is De immenso, Lib. IV, Cap. Thus in the question assigned for disputation by candidates incepting as Masters of Art at Oxford was: An terra quiescat in medio mundi.

Copernican views had been discussed there for a generation and several mathematicians resident there had been feeling their way to a concep- tion of a universe devoid of the traditional frontier. The earliest in whom we can trace the new astronomical views is Robert Recorde His Castle of Knowledge containing the explication of the Sphere both Celestiall and Materiall of is in the conventional form of a dialogue between a Master and a Schollar.

Almost echoing Copernicus, he reminds his pupil: Not only Eraclides Ponticus, a great Philosopher, and two great clerkes of Pythagoras schole, Philolaus and Eephantus, were of the contrary opinion, but also Nicias Syracusius, and Aristarchus Samius, seerne with strong argu- ments to approue it; but the reasons are to diflSculte for this firste introduc- tion, and therefore I will omit them till an other time. And so will I do the reasons that Ptolemy, Theon and others doo alleage, to prooue the earthe to bee without motion; and the rather, bycause those reasons doo not pro- ceede so demonstrablye, but they may be answered fully, of him that hold- eth the contrarye.

I mean, concerning the circularre motion; marye, direct motion of the centre of the world scemeth more easy to be confuted, and that by the same reasons, whiche were before alleaged for prouing the earthe to be in the middle and centre of the worlde.

Dee was a friend of Leonard Digges d. In Thomas Digges published in his Alae seu scalae mathematicae, dedicated to Lord Burleigh, the record of a series of observations of the new star in Cassiopeia, discovered the previous year. He likens the system with its orbs and epicycles to a monstrous picture of a man with head, feet and limbs each taken from the representation of a separate individual.

In came the pronouncement by Thomas Digges for an infinite Ephemeris anni currentis iusta Copernici et Reinhcddi canones. In it Thomas Digges sets forth the Copernican theory of a universe of concentric revolving spheres. But he interpolates a somewhat confused exposition, which is in no way derived from Copernicus, of an infinite universe with stars stretching through endless space Fig. But that Orbis magnus beinge as is be- fore declared but as a poynct in respect of the immensity of that immoueable heauen, we may easily consider what little portion of gods frame, our Ele- mentarc corruptible worlde is, but neuer sufficiently be able to admire the immensity of the Rest.

Especially of that fixed Orbe garnished with lightes Fol. Of whichc lightes Cclestiall it is to bee thoughte that we onely behoulde sutch as are in the inferioure partes of the same Orbe, and as they are hygher, so secme they of lesse and lesser quantity, euen tyll our sighte beinge not able farder to reache or conceyue, the greatest part rest by reason of their wonderfull distance inuisible unto us. And this may wel be thought of us to be the gloriouse court of the great God, whose unsearcheable worcks inuisible we may partly by these his visible coniecture, to whose infinit power and maiesty such an infinit place surmountinge all other both in quantity and quality only is conueniente.

The work of William Gilbert On the Magnet , which appeared in London in , is usually regarded as the first major work of experimental science by an Englishman. No one has ever proved this, nor is there a doubt but that just as the planets arc at unequal distances from the earth, so are these vast and multitudinous lights separated from the Earth by vary- The whole of the Perfit Description is printed by Francis R.

Johnson and San- ford V. De magnete magnetisque corporihus et de magno magnete tellure philosophia nova plurimis argumentis demonstrata London, The intervals of some are from their unfathomable distance matter of opinion rather than of verification; others less than they are yet very remote, and at varying distances, cither in that most subtle quintessence the thinnest aether or in the void. How immeasurable then must be the space which stretches to those remotest of fixed stars!

How vast and im- mense the depth of that imaginary sphere! How far removed from the Earth must be the most widely separated stars and at a distance transcending all sight, all skill, all thought! How monstrous, then would such a motion be!

It is evident then that all the heavenly bodies, set as if in destined places, are there formed unto spheres, that they tend to their own centres, and that round them there is a confluence of all their parts. And if they have motion, that motion will rather be that of each round its own centre, as that of the Earth is; or a forward movement of the centre in an orbit, as that of the Moon;.

In it he wavers between the schemes of Copernicus and of Brahe, inclining to the latter. The book adds something, however, to our knowledge of the relation of Bruno and Gilbert, for it gives a diagram Fig. When I was a sayinge that although Kepler had sayd somethinge the most that mighte be urged for Gilbert, On the Loadstone, trans.

Thompson London, Chiswick Press, , pp. Philosophia nova Amsterdam, He was perhaps the first to bring all terms of an equation to one side and equate to zero, and he pointed out that an equation has as many roots as it has powers or dimensions. Hariot made improve- ments too in mathematical notation. His telescope was said to have a magnification by 50, and he made a great many observations with it. Turning now to Continental writers on astronomy, we consider first Girolamo Fracastoro, whose name is given to a speaker in the work here translated.

Fracastoro was a very influential humanist and physician. Bruno cannot have met him, as he died when the Nolan was a small child.

Though best known for his medical works, Fracastoro made varied contributions to scientific thought. In his work on A Single Centre of the Universe he opposes certain details in the current Ptolemaic epicyclic scheme of planetary movement.

Addi- tional MS , ff. I, No. Homocentrica sive de stellis, first published in For other passages where Bruno draws on Fracastoro, sec F. Nor are the comets in anywise different from other planets but for their apparent difference of position. Whereby their light is sometimes as though exposed to us in a slanting mirror.

But now at last I may accept that they are con- firmed by the learned Dane Tycho who by his wise talent hath discov- Cf. The Zodiacus vitae appeared first in and again at Lyons, , and in many subsequent editions. The author propounds eight finite spheres and an infinite ninth sphere beyond. Palingenio is cited also in De immenso, Lib. VIII, Cap. Agrippa started life as a soldier, but soon turned to teaching, and held a series of posts; he lectured on Hebrew, on theology, and on the writings of Hermes Trismegistus; he was Syndic and Orator to the city of Mainz, practised medicine in Lyons, entered the service of Margaret of Austria and finally was historiographer to the Emperor Charles V.

Tycho Brahe , Danish astronomer, opened his career by observing a new star in Cassiopeia on nth November, , of which he printed an account in the following year. From he systematically studied the heavens for 21 years at his famous laboratory Urania on the Baltic island of Hveen. In Tycho published his own system of the world. The earth is the centre of it and centre also of the orbits of sun, moon and fixed stars.

The sun is centre of the orbits of the five planets. This system is a mere alterna- tive to that of Copernicus, since all the computations of the positions of heavenly bodies are identical for the two.

His universe was thus Ptolemaic and Copernican. Cornelius Gemma was born and passed his life at Louvain, where he occupied the chair of medi- cine. He occupied himself largely with astrology and mathematics but is remem- bered for his observations of an eclipse of the moon in and of the new star in Cassiopeia, which appeared in He recorded this star on 9th November, two days before it was seen by Tycho Brahe.

His work attracted the attention of Galileo. He published several astronomical works of which the first was Theoria nova coelestium meteorum Strassbourg, He was also the author of a work on medical astrology, De immenso.

De rinfinito universo et mondi, Dial. Death was but a stage in this process, while life was a quality inherent to a greater or lesser degree in every part of nature. VI, Cap. For the Renaissance illustrations of this phrase, '"Veritas temporis fUia! Cassirer Warburg Library, London, Nor doth it appear to me absurd but on the contrary most fitting and natural that finite transmutations may occur to a subject; wherefore particles of [elemental] earth may wander through the ethereal region and may traverse vast space now to this body, now to that, just as we see such particles change their position, their disposition and their form when they are yet close to us.

Whence we deduce that if this earth be eternal, it is not so by virtue of the stability of any one part or individual, but through vicissitudes of many parts, some being expelled therefrom and their place taken by others. Thus soul and intelligence persist while the body is ever changing and renewed, part by part. This may be observed also in animals which survive only by absorption and evacuation. Whoever considers well, will recognize that we have not in youth the same flesh as in childhood, nor in old age the same as in youth: for we suffer perpetual transmutation, whereby we receive a per- petual flow of fresh atoms, while those that we have received are ever leaving us.

Ihid,, Dial. And if, by divine providence, they do not form new bodies nor dis- solve the old, they are at least able to do so. For mundane bodies are in fact dissoluble; though either on account of intrinsic quality or through external influence they may persist to eternity, suffering a balanced influx and efflux of atoms; and thus they may remain constant in number, though their cor- poreal substance be like ours renewed from day to day, from hour to hour, from moment to moment, by the processes of attraction and metabolism of all the parts of the body.

Many continuous parts form a unity; There throughout and in every part, water is continuous with water, earthy matter with earthy matter; wherefore, since the concourse of the atoms of earth, and the atoms of water, is beyond our sensible apprehension, these minima arc then regarded as neither discrete nor continuous; but as forming a single continuum which is neither water nor earth.

And thus contrary and diverse mobile parts converge to constitute a single motionless continuum. De rerum natura, I, , , ; II, , ; V, The motion of the parts within the motionless whole, in II, , just fails to suggest a discrete continuum.

Following the fantasy of Raymund Lull, he uses as symbols of thought geometric figures with numbers. Congenial to Bruno too are the analogies drawn by Cusanus from the growth of endless mathematical series, arising from Unity. The minimum is the substance of all things, and thou wilt at length find it the same and the greatest of all. Here is the monad, the atom: and the whole Spirit extending hence upon every side; it is without bulk, its whole essence constituting all things by its symbols.

If thou examinest the matter, this it is, with its substances. Since indeed the minimum thus reneweth all things, so that nothing is spread beneath it nor is there aught else. Were there no monad, there would be nought of number for it doth constitute species, building up every kind. For it is the prime basis in all things, that as it were whence God and the parent nature and art do elaborate on high, that which reigneth over every kind and resideth in every kind.

Number is the accident of the monad but the monad is the essence of number; thus the atom entereth into composition and the atom is the essence of the com- posite. For the substance for the building of all bodies is the minimum body or the atom, and for building a line or a surface, the minimum is the point. Inherent Necessity All motion, and indeed all changes of state, Bruno ascribes to the inevi- table reaction of a given body to its environment.

Cusanus, De docta ignorantia, Lib. I, Capp. De minimo, Lik I, Cap. He thus conceives the phenomena of the universe or Nature as a synthesis of freely developing innate forces impelling to eternal growth and change. Not only all life but all being he regards as in some sort animated. In the work here translated he expounds his view that this anima constitutes the raggione or inherent law which, in con- tradistinction to any outward force or constraint, is responsible for all phenomena and above all for all motion.

It is true that the raggione of every part is influenced by the raggione of all other parts. But it is this ultimate nature, rather than the detailed behaviour, of each part which suffers this influence.

The individual, whether corporeal or incorporeal, is never completed; and among eternally pursuing individual forms, seeking eternally neverthe- less those to pursue, restcth neVer content. Thus is the infinity of All ever bringing forth anew, and even as infinite space is around us, so is infinite potentiality, capacity, reception, malleability, matter All motion and all matter in its diverse modes are the expressions of a rigorous Necessity but this Necessity is an inward force, not an outward constraint.

Often cited with admira- tion by Bruno is the work of Bernardino Telesio who founded the Academy at Cosenza. De la causa, principio et uno, pp. Telesio re- jects the Aristotelian distinction between Form and Matter. He says too that the heavenly bodies rotate because it is their nature to do so. Bruno resolves problems of individual will in something like a uni- versal pantheism.

We may recall that Bruno at his final trial was pathetically certain that if only he himself could make his judges under- stand, they would welcome his philosophy : If then spirit, soul, life, is in all things, and to a varying extent filleth all mat- ter, it must assuredly be the true act and the true form of all things. Thus only the external forms of things change and dissolve again, for they are not things in themselves but appertain to things, not substance but accident, and circumstance of substance.

As Gentile points out, Bruno was concerned only to refute the Aristotelian cosmology — not the other Peripatetic views, all of which were opposed by Ramus. Works condemned to be burned, Paris, De la causa, principio et uno, p. De I'infinito universo et mondi.

Thus the divine nature of the soul is perceived, nor dqth any passion or change take place therein. To whatever fate she is subject, coming to the part of a composite whole, she hardly remaineth for one moment affected by the same fate, yet she remaineth steadfast as a single entity The forces assailing the autonomy of the human will were on the one hand ecclesiastical authority, and on the other, belief in astrology and in the pagan conception of Fortuna or Fate.

To none of these did Bruno yield obedience. His doctrine of Inner Necessity is, of course, incompat- ible with the cruder astrology. De mtnimo, Lib. VI May , Preface to De lampade combinatoria Op.

We are startled to find astrology as part of the world picture of such figures as, for example, Kepler and Prince Cesi , founder of the Academy of the Lynx. Like his teacher, De Bovelles was a prolific writer of diversified talent. He produced the first Geometry published in the French language. His work On Wisdom presents an extraordinary combination of mediaeval thought with insur- gent humanism.

The discussion of macrocosm and microcosm and of the functions of the angelic hosts is in full mediaeval style. Elaborate figures and tables of qualities are reminiscent of Lull while the use of symbolism based on the Trinity often recalls Cusanus. De Bovelles strengthens his argument with quotations from Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. But the grand theme of the work is that Man has been endowed by God with Mind whereby he may through Wisdom attain to unity with the Godhead himself.

In the work here translated, the conception is revealed that not merely man, nor even only living things, are imbued with this inward urge. This which we have called 83 cf. On Shadows of Ideas, p. In the foreground are the seated figures of Fortuna and Sapientia. Fortuna is blindfolded and bears a revolving wheel in her hand.

That which residcth in the small, may be seen in the great, and it appearcth that the part hideth everywhere in the whole. Wherefore since the best doth exist in every species, he im- pelleth [agit] of necessity one and no other; and since he cannot be other than good, he cannot work [facere] otherwise than as he worketh.

Therefore by the necessity of his nature he worketh good, and yet better; and of two contraries, the worse could not be object or subject either of his power or of his will or of necessity. Beware then that priest who would rank cither divine freedom or our own freedom as merely contingent and possible. His majestic conception gives a universal cosmic free will.

As regards man, it links the problem of free will with the problem of knowledge. For the spontaneity and productivity of knowledge become the ultimate guarantees of human creative power.

We are thus introduced also to a new ethic. In the Expulsion of the Triumphant Beast the old celestial bodies are banished from heaven. His supreme law is in fact the Inner Light, De immenso, Lib. De gV heroici furori, Dial. Ill, i, 83 Gentile, Op. Synteresis, a term used by St. Thomas and by Jerome to signify the preservative or directive action of conscience. Underhill, Mysticism, I, iii, Again we observe the same views submit- ted to the crucible of two very different minds.

In both writers, closely associated with belief in the infinity of the universe was the doctrine of the Coincidence of Contraries. The subject-object relationship similarly was envisaged by both writers as a process of admixture culminating in identity. They both cite Pseudp-Dionysius fifth century who held that God transcends all contraries. Thomas ; by Albertus Magnus ; by Meister Eckhart d. De divinis nominibus, Capp.

An edition of the Opera omnia in terribly crabbed print appeared at Strassbourg in It has attractive figures ff. This edition has Commentaries by all the above named as well as by Hugo of St. Victor , Grossetete and Leo of Vercelli, and a new translation by Ficino of the De mystica theologica and the De divinis nominibus.

For these writers in this connection, sec F. Cassirer, op. Geycr, Berlin, The Com- mentary of Thomas is really an Epitome. He is dubious of this element in the thought of Ps. Gorce, Uessor de la pensSe au moyen age. The phi- losophy recently propounded by Lance Whyte as unitary process thought has also ancestry from the conception of convergence of contraries. Whyte recog- nizes Bruno among its forerunners and indeed takes it back to Heraclitus, but docs not mention Cusanus or Pseudo-Dionysius.

All these writers except Eckhart are cited by Bruno.